Of all the faiths in the world, Confucianism is among the most tolerant of other religions and among the readiest to recognize their validity as paths to salvation.
In China's long history of four millenniums, we would search in vain for instances of true religious wars. Admittedly, the standard of revolt was sometimes raised in the name of religion as in the Yellow Turbans' uprising in the final years of the Han dynasty (second century A.D.), the White Lotus insurrection (1796-1804) and the Taiping Rebellion in the middle of the 19th century. However, none of these revolts was aimed at overthrowing another religion. All were aimed at governments considered to be corrupt.
This tradition cannot be fully understood without some knowledge of the spirit of Confucianism. Let us examine the noble character of the Sage scholars have endeavored to emulate. In the Chung Yung, or Golden Mean, traditionally believed to be the work of Tzu Ssu, the grandson of Confucius, the Master is described as follows: "He may be compared to Heaven and Earth in their supporting and containing, their overshadowing and curtaining, of all things. He may be compared to the four seasons in their alternating progress and to the sun and moon in their successive shining. All things are nourished together without injuring one another; all courses are pursued without collision..." In other words, the ways leading to the same truth may vary but they should never collide. Tung Chung-shu was the principal mover in the trend towards eclecticism and syncretism during the early period of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.). Confucianism came to embody certain attributes of such leading schools of thought as Taoism, Legalism, Moism and Ying-yang.
The import of Buddhism from India and its growth and development in China offer further proof of religious tolerance on the part of the Chinese in general and Confucian scholars in particular. At first, Confucianism and Buddhism could find no ground of accommodation. For one thing the celibacy of Buddhist monks runs contrary to the Confucian concept of filial piety. Yet from the 7th century onward, the Mahayana Buddhism that prevailed in China was gradually Sinified. Instead of remaining an alien religion, it was turned into Chinese Buddhism. The Zen Sect, for example, is a Chinese Buddhism which exerts tremendous influence on the minds of Confucian scholars. Though few Confucian scholars are converted to the Buddhist faith, most of them find wisdom and truth in the Sutras.
The blossoming of neo-Confucianism during the Sung period (960-1279) was encouraged by Buddhism. Chu Hsi (1130-1200), the most eminent of the neo-Confucians of his time, said: "If one should realize that it is human desire that obscures his true nature, he would be enlightened." This sounds like Zen Buddhism, which stresses "brightening the heart (mind) in order to find true nature".
It is not an exaggeration to say that the average Confucian scholar wears three hats during a day. He puts on a Confucian miter while attending to state affairs or the business of his profession. He wears a Taoist hat in his leisure, trying to reconcile himself with nature. At night he dons a Buddhist miter in contemplation of life after death and in meditation to cleanse his mind.
Confucian scholars have no difficulty tolerating the Christian faith. Following a 635 audience granted a Nestorian priest whose Chinese name was O Lo Pen, Emperor Tai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty (618-906) proclaimed: "The way of truth has more than one name. There is more than one sage. Doctrines vary in different lands; their benefits reach all mankind..."
In the 18th century the Ch'ing Government took action against Christian missionaries in China. This was the result of a prolonged dispute - the so-called "rites" controversy (largely among the missionaries themselves) regarding the participation of Chinese Christians in rites to honor their ancestors and Confucius. A Papal decision of 1742 held that Chinese Christians must not take part in these ceremonies. The Ch'ing Government then moved - unsuccessfully - to expel the missionaries.
The Confucianist finds no difficulty in accepting Christian ideas of Heaven and Hell, or redemption of the soul through Jesus Christ. He attributes an equivalent theological validity to Buddhist, Mohammedan, Jewish and Hindu beliefs. But he interprets them all in Confucian terms and finds parallels in Confucian doctrine.
This Confucian tolerance is absent on the Chinese mainland today only because of Communist rule that contradicts Confucian teachings. Communism is essentially un-Chinese and a passing phase. When the Chinese on the mainland have regained their freedom, their traditional characteristics of magnanimity and tolerance will re-emerge. - Tsao Wen-yen
West & East - An imported art
When enamel was introduced from Turkistan or Arabia during the Yuan dynasty, it was quickly absorbed in Chinese art and became one of China's special products. Many enamel products of luster and beauty were produced during the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties. Enamel has an important place among Chinese art treasures.
The type of enamel known as Ching-tai lang or cloisonne dates to the reign of Ching-tai in the Ming dynasty. Enamel reached its height in the mid-15th century. Ching-tai enamel is delicate and gorgeous in color. The craftsmanship surpassed that of the Middle East.
Enamel can be classified as partitioned and soldered wire enamel, raised field enamel and painted enamel.
The separated soldered wire enamel is usually called cloisonne and sometimes Tadjik ware or Ghost Land ware. Cheng Che-sheng of the Ch'ing dynasty said in his book On Kiln Ware: "Tadjik ware is made with copper as a foundation to which wires are soldered. Material of many colors is filled in before baking in the furnace. It is called enamel"
Cloisonne is bright in color and strong of foundation. Products of Ming are generally better than those of Ch'ing. Ming colors look soft and smooth. The ware is semi-transparent. Although the cloisonne of the Ch'ing dynasty has a wider range of colors, it lacks the finely drawn beauty of Ming. However, there are not as many imperfections as in Ming enamel.
In raised field enamel, the decorative pattern is made by hammering or engraving. The depressions then are filled with enamel paste.
In painted enamel, the craftsman uses the paste much as the painter uses paint. Most painted enamel is on gold, silver or copper foundations. But some Chinese painted enamels are on porcelain or glass.
Porcelain foundation was first used in the Ch'ing dynasty. It looks like porcelain but the decorations are enameled. Colors are more lustrous. Some of the best are from Ku Yueh Hsien (the Ancient Moon Pavilion). These are collectors' favorites.
As enamel was imported, shapes and decorative designs often had a foreign look. Enamel vases, incense burners, teapots, etc., may have cicada or lotus designs combined with Western human figures. The combination of Oriental and Occidental arts is something new. A Kuan-yin (Goddess of Mercy) vase of Ch'ing has an ornamental pattern of lotus, human figures and houses in the Western style and a Chinese painting of "Spring Swallows in an Apricot Grove" near the top. - Hu Yu-jui
Chang Liu (Current) - Ancient medicine
Chinese medicine in its primitive phase can be compared to that of such ancient peoples as the Babylonians and Egyptians. It has a content of experience, religion, superstition and witchcraft.
In the Shang dynasty, people considered sickness as an independent entity that attacked the human body from without. Prayer, divination and charms were used to deal with such evil spirits. However, people gradually learned from experience that certain herbs were effective in curing certain ills.
By the time of the Warring States, Chinese medicine had been separated from witchcraft. The oldest medical books include Huang Ti Nui Ching (Emperor Huang Ti's Internal Medicine) and On Typhoid Sicknesses written in the Ch'in and Han dynasties. These two books began the systemizing of medicine. In the Sui and Tang dynasties, Chinese medical science was influenced by Buddhism and Taoism. Neo-Confucianism entered the picture in the Sung dynasty. Chinese medicine had many schools but maintained its unique characteristics.
There were two conflicting trends. Conservatives thought medicine had reached its final development in the Ch'in and Han dynasties. The theories of anatomy and physiology in the Huang Ti Nui Ching were considered the ultimate truth. This handicapped further progress. The other advocacy was of pragmatism as represented by Chang Chung-ching, author of On Typhoid Sicknesses. An official of the Later Han dynasty, Chang included 113 prescriptions, some of which are still used.
Keisetsu Otsuka, a Japanese, paid high tribute to this book. He said: "On Typhoid Sicknesses is outstanding medical literature of the Han dynasty. It was not influenced by Taoism or metaphysics. This book may lead to understanding of other sicknesses and their treatment." - Wu Ting-yuan
Chang Liu - Juvenile delinquency
Juvenile delinquency is a problem of modern industrial society. In the past, the rearing of children did not pose any serious problem in the Orient, where the family was the fundamental social unit. This may be attributed to the fact that the Asian family system was profoundly influenced by Confucian ethics. Fathers had strict control over their children. Furthermore, in Asian agricultural countries people led a simple life.
The situation has been greatly changed with the introduction of Western individualism to the Orient. Industrialization has undermined the family and led to a decline in ethics. Young people have difficulty adjusting to the environment. Juvenile delinquency has become a social problem.
Asian countries are industrializing and people are moving to the cities. Parents are busy with work and have no time to guide their children. Youths who leave their families for jobs in the cities are easily led astray.
Individual rights and freedoms have been emphasized. Traditional moral standards and social values have changed. Keen competition has affected young people's attitudes toward life.
Development of an individualistic economic system has brought abnormal concentration of wealth, unemployment, poverty, deterioration of social customs and social unrest. As young people have lost a pivotal point for life, they have organized themselves into gangs and committed crimes. This is a tragedy of 20th century civilization.
Readjustment of the social system and improvement of social security are essential in preventing juvenile delinquency. These points have been suggested:
1. Comprehensive plans of social organization and development should be worked out. Special attention should be given the balanced development of cities and rural areas so that industrial and commercial establishments will not become too concentrated. Educational and recreational facilities and social welfare measures for rural areas should be improved to avoid urban congestion.
2. Educational, cultural and religious forces of the community should be held responsible for supporting social organs and strengthening their organization. Government should widen the scope of social services to children and prohibit indecent publications, movies and TV programs. Schools should give more attention to the moral cultivation of the students and help those with problems. Parents should set a good example and give their children the love that will rekindle feelings of family warmth. - Ting Tao-yuan